Something caught my attention at a recent workshop on language learning strategies by a former colleague Kirstie Jackson Wilms. It was a slide displaying a learning taxonomy from Rebecca L. Oxford, dating back to 1990. The slide presented a taxonomy of language learning strategies. Rebecca L. Oxford refers to these strategies in an article: “The Role of the Language Learner” in the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (1993):
“At a more specific level of analysis, it is possible to distinguish among different types of strategies which assist learning. According to research, successful learners often use metacognitive (i.e., “beyond the cognitive”) strategies such as organizing, evaluating, and planning their learning. Use of these behaviors—along with cognitive strategies like analyzing, reasoning, transferring information, taking notes, and summarizing—might be considered part of any definition of truly effective learning (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara and Campione 1983). Additionally, competent learners often use compensation strategies such as guessing or inferencing, and memory strategies like grouping and structured reviewing—all of which have been included as cognitive strategies by most researchers.” (Oxford, R. L. (1993). Research on Second Language Learning Strategies. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 177.)
I found this exceptionally interesting, so I dug deeper into each category on the slide to see how they could be applied to my experience of language training.
Direct Strategies
1. Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive strategies are fundamental to language training. They involve manipulating the target language with activities like gap-filling, sentence-building, categorizing, etc. In this cognitive approach, learners are asked to do exercises that require active manipulation of language, such as identifying patterns in grammar and recontextualizing target language in controlled practice activities. We are all familiar with these methods and use them in language training on a daily basis.
Activity Example:
During the controlled practice section, students rearrange words to make full sentences. Students will apply rules that they have previously observed and noticed.
2. Memory Strategies
These strategies involve techniques to help learners store and retrieve information. This could include associating new vocabulary with images and sounds or creating mental linkages. A good example of this is spaced repetition exercises (e.g., flashcards or apps) to help reinforce memory. Teachers using memory strategies often encourage students to use visual aids or mind maps when learning new words or structures. They create materials that link new words to familiar concepts.
Activity Example:
In the warm-up, get learners to link new vocabulary to personal experiences and established schemas. This can be achieved by asking questions that test a learner’s existing knowledge of the topic. The idea is to get the attention of the learners and stimulate their recall of prior learning.
3, Compensatory Strategies
Often, language learners hesitate when they cannot think of a word. They don’t know a term but need to continue communicating. This also takes place during comprehension as a learner will guess the meaning of a word based on context. To facilitate this kind of learning, materials should incorporate exercises that provide learners with tool situations to manage situations where they don’t have full language knowledge (e.g., speaking in hypothetical situations or asking for clarification). This can help them build confidence in real-world situations and help them keep communicating.
Activity Example:
Encourage students to learn strategies for describing words, such as using a very generic word followed by a defining clause. For example, “It is a place where you can buy stamps.” The learner is missing the term: “post office,” but the counterpart in the communication will infer meaning and guess the term.
Indirect Strategies
1, Metacognitive Strategies
In 1965, Robert Gagné proposed a series of learning events that addressed the mental conditions for learning. In the second event, he stressed that we should inform students of the lesson objectives. There has to be an emphasis on learning goals before and after the lesson. Another approach is to add reflection tasks at the end of lessons, where students can assess their understanding and progress and self-reflect.
Such a metacognitive approach also involves planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s own learning. Learners set their own goals, track their progress, and adjust their approaches based on the feedback they get from trainers.
Activity example:
Some trainers will have heard of “learning to learn” activities that enable learners to set short- and long-term goals (e.g., “By the end of this lesson, I will be able to use three new adjectives to describe my workday.”). Objectives can be set for a whole course or smaller divisions of course content. Trainers encourage students to self-monitor and adjust their strategies if something is not working.
2, Affective Strategies
These are emotional strategies that help learners manage their feelings during the learning process. Trainers should help learners increase motivation and decrease anxiety by creating opportunities for them to reflect on their feelings about learning and develop coping strategies.
Activity Example:
Before the roleplay exercise, guide students through a visualization activity. Have them close their eyes and imagine themselves confidently communicating. Encourage them to visualize positive interactions and focus on how they would feel in that situation.
3, Social Strategies
The psychologist Vygotsky emphasized the crucial role of social interaction in cognitive development and learning. He said that children’s cognitive abilities are shaped by their interactions with parents, teachers, and peers. A social strategy is about getting learners to work together, communicate, ask questions, and provide peer feedback. The trainer constructs tasks where learners must problem-solve as a team (e.g., discussing and agreeing on solutions to case studies or scenarios). Communicative language training methods like Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) are ideal for developing this approach. The key concept is that learning and cognitive development are fundamentally socially mediated processes.
Activity Example:
During the Feedback section, involve students in peer feedback by asking them to provide constructive comments on what they heard.
In conclusion, understanding and applying different learning strategies can greatly enhance language acquisition. By integrating direct strategies like cognitive, memory, and compensatory approaches, alongside indirect strategies such as metacognitive, affective, and social ones, trainers can create a more effective, well-rounded learning experience. This balance helps learners not only practice language skills but also develop the tools they need to navigate real-life communication with confidence and autonomy.
Image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay
No responses yet